The Age of Industrialisation

Proto-Industrialisation: The Precursor to Factories

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, something unique was happening in England and Europe. It wasn’t quite the Industrial Revolution as we know it, but it was the steppingstone – proto-industrialization. Imagine a time when there were no big factories, but there was large-scale industrial production for an international market. How did this work, you wonder?

Merchant’s in the Countryside

Merchants from Europe played a crucial role. Instead of setting up shop in bustling towns, they moved to the countryside. These savvy merchants brought something more than just their products – they brought money. They supplied funds to peasants and artisans and had an interesting proposition for them.

Money Talks, Production Walks

The deal was simple – the merchants asked peasants and artisans to produce goods for an international market. Why did they go along with it? Well, the answer lies in the restrictions placed on merchants within towns. Rulers had granted various guilds a monopoly right to produce and trade specific products. This limited the expansion of production within towns, leaving the countryside as a more appealing option.

The Peasant’s Perspective

From the perspective of poor peasants and artisans, this was a win-win. They could remain in the peaceful countryside, continue cultivating their small plots, and still participate in the commercial exchanges controlled by merchants. This was the birth of the proto-industrial system. It was a part of a larger network of commercial exchanges, orchestrated by these enterprising merchants.

Proto-Industrialisation: In a Nutshell

So, let’s sum it up. Proto-industrialization was the phase before big factories came into play. Merchants moved to the countryside, supplied money to peasants and artisans, and had them produce goods for international trade. The monopoly rights granted to guilds within towns limited the merchant’s scope, making the countryside an attractive option. This system allowed small-scale producers to participate in the international market.

The Birth of Factories

In the 1730s, England witnessed the birth of what we now call “factories.” These early factories were a precursor to the massive industrial complexes we know today. They were the pioneers of a revolution that would transform society.

The Cotton Connection
- Cotton played a pivotal role in this industrial transformation. It became a symbol of the new era that was dawning. The late 18th century saw the rapid expansion of cotton production, and it became a symbol of the industrial revolution.

Richard Arkwright and the Cotton Mill

Now, here’s an interesting character in our story – Richard Arkwright. He’s the one who kick-started the cotton revolution. Arkwright created the cotton mill, a place where something revolutionary happened. Expensive machines, once scattered across different locations, were brought together under one roof. Imagine the efficiency!

Centralized Management
- But it wasn’t just about machines. Arkwright’s genius move was to centralize the management of the production process. Having all the processes under one roof meant that things could be coordinated more efficiently. The result? A surge in production, which was crucial for the growing demand for cotton.

The Rise of Cotton and Metals

First: In Britain, the most dynamic industries were cotton and metals. The early stages of industrialization, stretching up to the 1840s, were dominated by the cotton industry. This was closely followed by the iron and steel sector. These industries would become the trailblazers, paving the way for the industrial transformation that would follow.

The Struggles of New Industries
- Second: The new industries found it difficult to displace traditional industries. The established, traditional sectors had deep roots, and emerging industries faced an uphill battle in displacing them. The old guard wasn’t going down without a fight..

The Evolving ‘Traditional’ Industries

Third: The pace of change in the ‘traditional’ industries was not solely dictated by steam-powered cotton or metal industries, but they did not remain entirely stagnant either. The traditional sectors were not rendered obsolete; instead, they adapted to the changing landscape. It was a dynamic coexistence, with each influencing the other.

The Cautious March of Technological Change
- Fourth: Technological changes occurred slowly. The march of technology, although transformative, wasn’t a sprint. Change came, but it came incrementally, one step at a time.

James Watt’s Steam Revolution

In the midst of this industrial ferment, one man left an indelible mark on history – James Watt. In 1781, he improved upon the steam engine developed by Newcomen and patented his innovation. His close friend and industrialist, Mathew Boulton, was instrumental in manufacturing this groundbreaking model. However, the adoption of steam engines in other industries would take time. They weren’t an instant hit; the full potential of this technology was yet to be realized.

Manual Labours VS Machines

Abundant Labor Force
- Abundant human labor was a hallmark of Victorian Britain.
- Labor shortages and high wage costs were not significant challenges for industrialists during this era.
Capital-Intensive Industrialization
- Victorian industrialists faced
- A different challenge – the need for substantial capital investments.
- Instead of machines, they required significant financial resources to modernize production.
Seasonal Labor Demand
- Seasonal fluctuations in labor demand were common in many Victorian industries.
- Production ebbed and flowed with the changing seasons, impacting the need for labor.
Preference for Hand Labor
- In industries where production fluctuated with the seasons, industrialists often preferred hand labor.
- They employed workers for specific seasons, offering flexibility and cost-effectiveness.

Life of the Workers: Challenges and Transformations

In the pages of history, the lives of workers reveal tales of resilience, adaptation, and the ever-changing fabric of the workforce. In an era where abundant labor met the fear of unemployment and the embrace of new technology, the lives of these workers underwent significant shifts. Let’s journey through time to explore the intricate tapestry of the workers’ lives.

The Challenge of Employment Before the mid-19th century, the task of finding work was no walk in the park. Workers faced the daunting challenge of securing employment, often requiring a network of friends and family within a factory for job opportunities.
The Dawn of Change In the early 19th century, a significant shift occurred. Wages began to increase, bringing a glimmer of hope to workers. However, this newfound optimism was met with resistance as the fear of unemployment loomed large.
The Technological Shift The introduction of the Spinning Jenny in the woollen industry marked a pivotal moment. This innovation brought about increased productivity but also sparked apprehension among workers, who saw it as a threat to their job security.
Urban Transformation After the 1840s, cities witnessed a surge in building activities. This urban transformation created new opportunities for employment. Roads were widened, new railway stations sprung up, railway lines extended, tunnels dug, drainage systems and sewers laid, and rivers embanked, providing work to many.

The Spinning Jenny

The Spinning Jenny, developed by James Hargreaves in the late 18th century, was a groundbreaking invention in the textile industry. This machine revolutionized spinning and weaving by allowing a single operator to simultaneously spin multiple spools of thread, greatly increasing productivity. The Spinning Jenny had a row of spindles, which, when rotated by a hand-crank, twisted fibers into yarn. This innovation significantly boosted textile production during the Industrial Revolution. However, it also raised concerns among workers about potential job displacement.

The Indian Textile Industry

Indian textiles were nothing short of a marvel. They were like the crown jewels of the textile world, known for their exceptional quality, vibrant colors, and exquisite softness. Indian merchants and bankers were the backbone of the textile industry, financing production, transporting goods, and supplying exporters. The 1750s marked a turning point when the network controlled by Indian merchants began to unravel, signifying significant changes on the horizon.
Enter European companies, seizing a growing share of the market. They secured concessions from local courts, positioning themselves for dominance. Monopoly became the name of the game. European companies obtained the monopoly rights to trade, consolidating their control and expanding colonial power. Picture a map of India with old ports transforming into new ones. This shift was a clear indicator of the rising colonial influence as European companies gained control. European ships now dominated the trade routes. It was as if they set sail on an ocean transformed to cater to their desires.
Sadly, many traditional trading houses couldn’t navigate the changing landscape and met their demise. For those who wished to survive, it meant adapting to a new reality shaped by European trading companies.

How Europeans Conquered Indian Markets?

Concessions from Local Courts: European companies, notably the British and Dutch, secured concessions from local Indian rulers and courts. These concessions often included exclusive rights to establish trading posts and conduct business within their territories.
Monopoly Rights to Trade: These European companies then leveraged these initial concessions to negotiate further, obtaining monopoly rights to trade specific goods. This meant that no other entities were allowed to trade in those goods within the designated areas.
Diplomatic and Economic Influence: European powers used their diplomatic and economic influence to pressure local rulers into granting them more favorable terms. Their military strength often played a role in these negotiations.
Strategic Control of Ports: European companies strategically took control of key ports and trade routes, allowing them to regulate and monopolize the flow of goods. This not only ensured their dominance but also obstructed the trade activities of competitors.
Networking and Collaboration: European companies collaborated with one another, forming alliances and sharing resources. This cooperative approach further solidified their control over trade.

East India Company and Weavers

Let’s step into the pages of history to understand what happened to the weavers of India. After the 1760s, things took a different turn, and the fate of these skilled artisans was about to change. Before the East India Company could assert political power in Bengal and Carnatic, they faced the uphill battle of ensuring a consistent supply of textile goods for export. The struggle was real. To overcome this struggle, the East India Company devised a system to control and eliminate competition, reduce costs, and secure a regular supply of cotton and silk goods. This system involved a series of steps that would reshape the textile industry.

How did the Company Control the Market?

Eliminating Traders and Brokers: The Company began by eliminating existing traders and brokers who were traditionally involved in the cloth trade. This allowed them to have more direct control over the weavers and the textile production process.
Exclusive Contracts: The East India Company prevented their own weavers from engaging with other buyers. This exclusive arrangement ensured that all the goods produced were for the Company’s benefit.
Loans for Weavers: Weavers who took loans from the Company were obliged to hand over the cloth they produced to Company representatives called “gomasthas.” These loans were often used by weavers to purchase raw materials for their work.
Family Involvement in Weaving: Weaving became a family affair, with entire families engaged in different stages of the weaving process. This ensured maximum control and output.
Use of Outsiders: The Company introduced “gomasthas,” who were outsiders with no social ties to the local villages or the weavers. This reduced the influence of local supply merchants and further centralized control in the hands of the Company.

Weaver’s Dilemma

Weavers found themselves at the heart of this transformation. They were directly impacted as existing traders and brokers were eliminated, and the Company established more direct control over them. We’ll explore how this affected their lives. Change doesn’t come without resistance. In many places, weavers and traders rebelled, opposing the Company and its officials. Their struggles and revolts reflected the turmoil of the times. As the pressure mounted and their traditional way of life shifted, many weavers made a tough decision. They began refusing loans, shut down their workshops, and turned to agriculture to sustain their families.

Manchester in India

In 1772, Henry Patullo expressed optimism about the demand for Indian textiles due to their quality.
However, by the early 19th century, India experienced a decline in textile exports.
British cotton goods’ exports to India dramatically increased during this period.
In the late 18th century, cotton piece goods’ import to India was restricted.

Cotton weavers in India faced two significant challenges: the collapse of their export market and a saturated local market with imports from Manchester.
By the 1860s, weavers encountered a new problem—difficulty in sourcing good-quality raw cotton.
Even though raw cotton exports from India increased, it resulted in higher prices.
Towards the end of the 19th century, the rise of factories in India flooded the market with machine-produced goods, affecting various craftspeople.

Factories in India: New Beginnings

In 1854, the first cotton mill in Bombay started production.
By 1862, four more mills were established in Bombay.
During the same period, jute mills were set up in Bengal, with the first one established in 1855 and another in 1862.
In the 1860s, the Elgin Mill in Kanpur, North India, and the first cotton mill in Ahmedabad were established.
In 1874, the first spinning and weaving mill in Madras commenced production.

Early Entrepreneurs

In the late 18th century, British traders in India started exporting opium to China and importing tea from China to England, marking the beginnings of trade.
Some visionary Indian businessmen saw the potential for industrial development in India.
Dwarkanath Tagore in Bengal and Parsi entrepreneurs like Dinshaw Petit and Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata in Bombay played significant roles in building industrial empires.
Seth Hukumchand, a Marwari businessman, established the first Indian jute mill in Calcutta in 1917.
Colonial restrictions limited Indian trade with Europe to raw materials and food grains such as raw cotton, opium, wheat, and indigo.
European Managing Agencies like Bird Heilgers & Co., Andrew Yule, and Jardine Skinner & Co. facilitated capital mobilization, the formation of joint-stock companies, and their management.

Urbanization: Fulfilling the need of Labour

In the era of expanding factories, the hunger for labor grew. Workers flocked from neighboring districts in search of employment. For instance, in 1911, over 50 percent of Bombay’s cotton industry workforce hailed from nearby Ratnagiri. Similarly, Kanpur’s mills primarily employed textile workers from within the Kanpur district. Word of job opportunities spread like wildfire, prompting laborers to journey great distances in the hope of securing employment.
Yet, despite the increasing demand for workers, finding a job remained a formidable challenge. Job seekers significantly outnumbered available positions. To bridge this gap, many industrialists enlisted the help of a jobber, often from their own village, to recruit new workers. These industrialists not only aided the jobber in settling down but also provided financial assistance when needed. This scenario painted a vivid picture of the labor dynamics during this industrial era.

Peculiar Industrial Growth

European Managing Agencies had a keen interest in select products such as tea, coffee, and ventures into mining, indigo, and jute. These goods were predominantly earmarked for export, marking a pivotal era in trade.
In the late 19th century, Indian entrepreneurs embarked on an industrial odyssey, notably in the production of yarn. This yarn found its purpose not only in the looms of Indian handloom weavers but also in distant Chinese markets, echoing the threads of global commerce.
The industrialization landscape was far from static, subject to the tides of change. The Swadeshi movement emerged, ringing in an era where nationalists rallied behind the boycott of foreign-made cloth.
The flow of Indian yarn to China faced a twist as competition from Chinese and Japanese mills surged, setting the stage for new dynamics in trade.
Pre-World War I, the wheels of industrial growth turned slowly, like a locomotive waiting for the green signal.
Then, the Great War arrived, ushering in a monumental transformation. Indian mills seized the opportunity to fulfill the war’s insatiable appetite for goods like jute bags, military uniforms, and sturdy tents.
Industrial production blossomed against this backdrop, and post-war, Manchester found itself unable to recapture its once-supreme position in the Indian market.

Predominance of Small Scale Industries

Small-scale industries remained prevalent across the country, with only a small fraction of industrial labor working in registered factories.
The majority of industrial workers were engaged in small workshops and household units, emphasizing the decentralized nature of production.
Handicraft production witnessed expansion in the 20th century, driven by the adoption of new technologies that improved production efficiency without significant cost escalation.
Weavers varied in their ability to withstand competition from mill industries, with some producing coarse cloth and others creating finer varieties.
Despite their expansion, weavers and other craftspeople who continued production in the 20th century did not necessarily achieve prosperity. They often worked long hours, with women and children contributing to the labor force.
These artisans were not mere remnants of the past but played an integral role in the ongoing process of industrialization, contributing to the fabric of small-scale industries in the age of factories.

Industrialisations and Advertisements

Advertisements have always played a crucial role in making products appear desirable and necessary, molding people’s preferences, and even creating new needs.
In today’s world, we are constantly bombarded with advertisements in newspapers, magazines, on hoardings, street walls, and television screens, reflecting the enduring power of marketing.
Since the early days of the industrial era, advertisements have been instrumental in expanding markets for products and shaping the foundations of new consumer culture.
Manchester industrialists understood the importance of branding, using labels on cloth bundles to convey quality. The bold “MADE IN MANCHESTER” label instilled confidence in buyers.
Some labels went beyond text, featuring beautifully crafted images, including those of Indian gods and goddesses, which added a touch of artistry to marketing.
Manufacturers leveraged printing calendars to promote their products, often using divine figures to endorse new offerings.
Eventually, advertisements evolved into a platform for conveying nationalist messages, notably during the Swadeshi movement, reflecting their adaptability and influence in shaping societal narratives.