Print Culture And The Modern World

The origin of Printed Books

Invention of Hand Printing: In ancient China, around AD 594, a revolutionary method of hand printing was born. This marked the genesis of printed books, which were created by rubbing paper. The books were folded and stitched for durability.
China’s Dominance in Printing: China held the mantle as the primary producer of printed materials for an extended period. Their expertise in printing extended to producing textbooks for civil service examinations, a crucial part of their bureaucracy.
Expansion of Readership: The significance of print transcended the realm of scholar-officials. Merchants recognized its value for documenting trade information, expanding its use beyond academia. Reading also became a leisure activity.
Empowering Women through Print: A notable change occurred with the engagement of rich women in publishing their poetry and plays. Print opened doors for women to share their creativity and perspectives.
Western Influence: In the late 19th century, Western printing techniques and mechanical presses made their entrance, further transforming the printing landscape in these Asian countries.

Printing in Asia

Early Print Technology in Asia: China, Japan, and Korea pioneered the earliest form of print technology through hand printing. This innovation began around AD 594.
Chinese Woodblock Printing: In China, books were created by rubbing paper against inked woodblocks. The unique ‘accordion book’ format, folded and stitched, was adopted due to the thin, porous paper.
Imperial China’s Printing Dominance: China’s imperial state played a major role in producing printed materials, especially for civil service examinations. This governmental sponsorship led to the mass production of textbooks.
Diversification of Print Uses: By the seventeenth century, print extended beyond scholar-officials. Merchants used print for trade records, and reading evolved into a leisure activity.
Emergence of New Reading Culture: The new readership favored fictional narratives, poetry, autobiographies, and romantic plays. Women, including the wives of scholar-officials and courtesans, started publishing their creative works.
Western Influence on Printing: In the late nineteenth century, Western printing techniques and mechanical presses were introduced as Western powers established their presence in China. This marked a shift from traditional hand printing to mechanical methods.

Print in Japan

Buddhist Missionaries Bring Printing: Imagine a time when hand-printing technology made its way to Japan through the efforts of Buddhist missionaries from China. This occurred between AD 768-770, marking the dawn of a new era in the land of the rising sun.
The Oldest Japanese Book: Among the early printed treasures, the Buddhist Diamond Sutra stands out as the oldest Japanese book, printed in AD 868. This precious book contained not only text but also woodcut illustrations, a remarkable feat for its time.
Visual Material and Publishing: The introduction of printing in Japan wasn’t limited to text. It ushered in a world of visual materials. This, in turn, led to intriguing publishing practices that transcended traditional boundaries.
A Glimpse of the Late 19th Century: Fast forward to the late 19th century, and you’d find a bustling scene in Japan’s libraries and bookstores. They were brimming with hand-printed material of various kinds, from books about women to guides on musical instruments.

Print Arrives in Europe

Marco Polo’s Return: After Marco Polo’s travels to China, he brought back knowledge of woodblock printing to Europe. This marked the beginning of a significant shift in how information was disseminated.
Spread of Printing Technology: The technology of woodblock printing soon spread to other parts of Europe, leading to a transformative period in the history of the written word.
Growing Demand for Books: With the knowledge of printing, the demand for books began to surge. Booksellers started exporting printed books to various European countries.
Transition from Handwritten Manuscripts: Handwritten manuscripts could no longer keep up with the ever-increasing demand for books. Europe turned to woodblocks to print textiles, playing cards, and religious pictures with concise texts.
Johann Gutenberg’s Printing Press: The pivotal moment in European printing history came in the 1430s when Johann Gutenberg developed the first-known printing press. This invention revolutionized the production of books and marked the dawn of the modern printing era.

Gutenberg’s Printing Press

Gutenberg’s Expertise in Stone Polishing: Johannes Gutenberg, with his background in the art of stone polishing, used this knowledge to develop his revolutionary printing press in 1430s.
The First Printed Book – The Bible: Gutenberg’s innovative system produced the first printed book, the Bible. This marked a pivotal moment in the history of printing.
Coexistence with Handmade Books: Despite the advent of this new technology, the traditional method of producing books by hand continued to thrive. Books intended for the wealthy often featured blank spaces for personalized decoration.
Spread of Printing Presses: Between 1450 and 1550, a mere century, printing presses had been established in most European countries. This rapid expansion signaled the dissemination of knowledge on an unprecedented scale.
Printing Revolution: The transition from hand printing to mechanical printing machines heralded the Printing Revolution, forever altering how information was created, shared, and preserved.

Impact of the Print Revolution

New Reading Public: The Print Revolution reduced book costs, making them accessible to a broader audience. This fostered a new reading culture, allowing common people to engage with printed materials, bridging the gap between the literate and illiterate through illustrations.
Religious Debates and Fear of Print: Print technology sparked debates and discussions, but not everyone welcomed it. Many feared that the widespread circulation of books could promote rebellious or irreligious thoughts. Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses, printed and widely distributed, initiated the Protestant Reformation in 1517.
Print and Dissent: In the sixteenth century, the influence of printed books led individuals like Menocchio to reinterpret religious texts, sparking outrage from the Roman Catholic Church. The Church responded by maintaining an Index of Prohibited Books from 1558.
The Reading Mania: Throughout Europe, literacy rates increased during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Schools and literacy initiatives flourished, leading to a demand for more books. Reading shifted from educational to entertainment purposes, and various types of books emerged.
Periodicals and Enlightenment: The early 18th century saw the development of periodicals that combined current affairs with entertainment. Journals and newspapers provided information on wars, trade, and scientific discoveries like Isaac Newton’s, influencing a scientifically-minded readership.
The Power of Print: By the mid-eighteenth century, books were seen as agents of progress and enlightenment. Print was hailed as a force capable of challenging despotism and spreading ideas of liberty and knowledge.

Role of Print in the French Revolution

Popularization of Enlightenment Ideas: Print culture popularized Enlightenment thinkers’ ideas, offering a critical perspective on tradition, superstition, and despotism. Writings of influential figures like Voltaire and Rousseau were widely read, encouraging critical and rational thinking.
Creation of a Culture of Dialogue: Print gave rise to a culture of dialogue and debate. In this public sphere, new ideas about social revolution emerged, shaping the intellectual landscape of the time.
Literary Satire and Critique: By the 1780s, an outpouring of literature used print to mock royalty and criticize their morality. This satirical literature played a role in shaping public opinion.
Spread and Interpretation of Ideas: Print facilitated the spread of ideas, allowing people to accept, reject, and interpret concepts in their own way. While print didn’t directly control their thoughts, it opened up the possibility of thinking differently.

The 19th Century

Broadened Readership: In the 19th century, mass literacy in Europe saw an expansion with the inclusion of new readers among children, women, and workers.
Compulsory Primary Education: During the late 19th century, primary education became mandatory, marking a significant step toward universal literacy.
Children’s Literature: France established a children’s press in 1857, dedicated to producing literature tailored for young readers.
Revival of Folk Tales: The Grimm Brothers in Germany collected and rejuvenated traditional folk tales, giving rural narratives a new lease of life.
Empowering Women as Readers and Writers: Women’s role in reading and writing gained prominence. Magazines and manuals, focusing on women’s interests, were published during this period.
Educational Lending Libraries: Lending libraries in England became vital instruments for educating a diverse audience, including white-collar workers, artisans, and those from the lower-middle class.
Technological Advances in Printing: Printing technology evolved significantly during the 19th century, transitioning from wooden to metal presses and introducing innovations like the power-driven cylindrical press developed by Richard M.
Offset Printing: The 19th century witnessed the development of offset printing, capable of simultaneously printing six colors, expanding the possibilities in the world of printed materials.
Electrical Presses: In the 20th century, electrically operated presses revolutionized printing, with continuous innovations in feeding paper, improving plate quality, and introducing automation and color registration controls.

Print Culture in India

Manuscripts Before Printing: India had a rich tradition of handwritten manuscripts in languages like Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, and vernacular languages. These manuscripts were often inscribed on palm leaves or handmade paper. Even with the advent of print, manuscript production continued, although it was considered costly and fragile.
Limited Reading in Bengal: In Bengal, the focus of education was primarily on writing, leading to many individuals becoming literate without substantial exposure to reading texts.
Introduction of Printing: Printing technology arrived in India in the mid-sixteenth century with Portuguese missionaries. Catholic priests in Cochin printed the first Tamil book in 1579 and the first Malayalam book in 1713. The English press, imported by the English East India Company in the late seventeenth century, grew later.

Print and Religion

Intensifying Critique and Reform: During the early 19th century, religious issues became increasingly intense. People began to criticize long-standing practices and advocate for reform within their respective faiths.
Debates and Counterarguments: The era was marked by spirited debates, where reformers put forth their arguments, and those adhering to traditional beliefs countered them. These debates often revolved around various religious and social matters.
Role of Printed Material: Printed tracts and newspapers played a pivotal role in shaping the nature of these debates. They spread new ideas and allowed reformers to voice their opinions to a wider audience.
Emergence of New Ideas: As a result of these debates, new ideas emerged regarding practices like widow immolation, monotheism, Brahmanical priesthood, and idolatry. These ideas challenged orthodox religious beliefs.
Prominent Figures: In 1821, Rammohun Roy published the “Sambad Kaumudi,” and in 1822, Persian newspapers like “Jam-i-Jahan Nama” and “Shamsul Akhbar” were established. In the same year, the “Bombay Samachar,” a Gujarati newspaper, was founded. These publications played a crucial role in spreading reformist ideas.
Islamic Reform: The Deoband Seminary, established in 1867, published thousands of fatwas. These provided guidance to Muslim readers on how to conduct their daily lives and explained Islamic doctrines. This was part of the broader Islamic reform movement.
Spread of Religious Texts: Print culture encouraged the reading of religious texts, particularly among Hindus in vernacular languages. This made religious literature more accessible to a broader audience.
Encouraging Discussions: The availability of religious texts and newspapers facilitated discussions, debates, and controversies both within and among different religious communities. It allowed people to engage with religious ideas more actively.
Pan-Indian Identities: Newspapers played a crucial role in conveying news from one part of India to another, contributing to the development of pan-Indian identities. People from various regions could learn about the religious and social developments in other parts of the country.

New Publication Forms

In the heart of Europe, a literary revolution was brewing. The novel, a literary form that captured the imagination and stories of people, took center stage. What’s fascinating is that the novel wasn’t just a European creation; it was influenced by Indian forms and styles, making it a bridge between cultures. It arose to meet the growing appetite of people for engaging narratives. The literary world expanded like never before. In addition to the novel, new literary forms emerged. These included lyrics, short stories, and essays that delved into social and political matters. These various forms of writing became tools for expressing ideas, emotions, and critiques, captivating readers of all backgrounds. As we journey through the 19th century, a new visual culture takes shape. Cheap calendars became accessible in the bustling bazaars, transforming into more than mere timekeeping tools. Even those with modest means could adorn their homes and workplaces with these affordable prints. This visual culture became a powerful force, shaping popular perceptions of modernity and tradition, religion and politics, and society and culture.

Cheap Calendars: Shaping Modernity and Tradition
- The availability of affordable calendars was not just about tracking dates. It was about bringing art, culture, and ideas to the masses. These prints were not mere decorations; they were windows into the world, often reflecting the rich tapestry of tradition and the dynamic forces of modernity. They became a means of bridging the gap between the past and the present.
Caricatures and Cartoons: Voices of Social Commentary
- By the 1870s, journals and newspapers had another tool to communicate ideas and opinions caricatures and cartoons. These artistic expressions offered a witty and often humorous commentary on social and political issues. They became the voices of the era, resonating with readers as they provided insights and critiques in an engaging visual format.

Women and Print

The pages of middle-class homes were about to welcome a new chapter as women’s reading surged. Schools dedicated to educating women emerged in urban areas, signifying a significant shift in societal norms. But why did it take so long for this transformation to occur, and what challenges did it face?
Imagine a world where being literate was seen as a threat to a woman’s future. Conservative Hindus feared that a literate girl would be widowed, while Muslims worried that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances. These fears and stereotypes needed to be shattered to pave the way for women’s education. The battle for women’s education was not an easy one. It required immense courage and societal reform. Alongside this struggle, literature began to emerge as a powerful tool that could not be ignored. Social reforms, driven by the desire for change, started influencing attitudes towards women’s education.
Literature as a Catalyst for Change
- Novels, short stories, and essays began to paint vivid pictures of women’s lives and emotions. They provided a platform for women to express their thoughts and experiences, igniting a flame of curiosity and change. The power of the written word was making a profound impact.
Journals: The Voice of Women
- The early 20th century witnessed a remarkable development—journals written and edited by women gained immense popularity. These journals weren’t just windows into women’s worldviews; they were the voices of a new era, advocating for change, education, and equality.
The Battala: A Hub of Empowerment
- In Bengal, a significant transformation was taking place. Central Calcutta’s Battala area became a dedicated space for the printing of popular books. This hub of empowerment was a testament to the growing appetite for knowledge among women. It was here that ideas were brought to life, challenging traditional norms.
The Power of Illustrations and Pedlars
- By the late 19th century, many of these books were adorned with woodcuts and colorful lithographs. These illustrations added a visual dimension to the written word, making the content more engaging and accessible. Pedlars played a crucial role in taking these publications to homes, ensuring that women could read them in their leisure time.
The Dawn of Affordable Books
- In an era where knowledge was often confined to the privileged, the emergence of affordable books marked a turning point. These books were readily available in markets, allowing people, particularly those from economically disadvantaged backgrounds, to access the treasure trove of printed knowledge.
Public Libraries: Hubs of Learning
- The establishment of public libraries, predominantly in urban areas, created oases of learning for the less privileged. These institutions played a vital role in democratizing access to books and information. But how did these libraries change the lives of the poor?
The Emergence of Caste Discrimination
- The late 19th century witnessed a concerning development in many printed tracts and essays—caste discrimination started to rear its ugly head. How did this impact the less privileged, and what challenges did it pose in their pursuit of education?
Voices of the Factory Workers
- Factory workers, often devoid of formal education, had compelling stories and experiences to share. However, their lack of literacy limited their ability to document their struggles. How did print become a means for them to express themselves?
Kashibaba’s Vision: Linking Caste and Class
- In 1938, a remarkable figure named Kashibaba authored and published “Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal 1938,” aiming to illuminate the connections between caste and class exploitation. How did Kashibaba’s work shed light on the plight of the less privileged?
Millworkers’ Libraries in Bangalore
- The 1930s saw a transformative initiative in Bangalore, where cotton mill workers set up libraries to educate themselves. How did these libraries serve as beacons of hope and knowledge for the less privileged?
A Relatively Free Press under the East India Co.
- In the early days of the East India Company’s rule, censorship was not a major concern. The press enjoyed a degree of freedom, allowing diverse voices to be heard. But how long did this relative freedom last?
The Shift in Press Laws: A Tug of War
- The scenario changed as the years rolled on. The Calcutta Supreme Court introduced regulations to control press freedom. In 1835, Governor-General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws, and Thomas Macaulay played a pivotal role in formulating new rules. These rules aimed to restore an earlier level of freedom. How did this tug of war affect the press?
A Turning Point: The Revolt of 1857
- The revolt of 1857 marked a significant turning point. It sent ripples through the freedom of the press. How did this historical event impact the relationship between print and the authorities?
Vernacular Press Act: A Shield of Censorship
- In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was enacted, taking inspiration from the Irish Press Laws. This act bestowed extensive rights upon the government to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press. It marked a significant shift in the government’s approach to the press. How did this act alter the landscape of the Indian press?
Rise of Nationalist Newspapers
- Despite the increased censorship, nationalist newspapers began to emerge throughout India. These publications played a crucial role in shaping public opinion. How did they navigate the complex waters of press and censorship to convey their messages?
Tilak’s Kesari: The Power of Sympathetic Words
- In 1907, Punjab revolutionaries were deported, and Bal Gangadhar Tilak, the prominent nationalist leader, wrote with great sympathy about them in his newspaper Kesari. This compassionate stance led to his imprisonment in 1908. How did sympathetic words challenge the boundaries of censorship?